The first and central note of a scale — the “home” pitch.
In Carnatic music, this corresponds to Sa.

The harmonic system underlying much of Western classical music from the common practice period (ca. 1650–1900) — and still foundational to popular music today.
It is built around a tonal center (tonic), uses major and minor scales, and features chords with functional relationships to that tonal center.

The distinct tone color of an instrument or voice — what makes it sound unique, even when playing the same pitch at the same dynamic level as another instrument.
In Western classical music, its role gained importance through expanded orchestration in the 19th century, and grew further with a compositional focus on new sounds in the 20th century.

In a fugue, this refers to a phrase in one voice being closely followed by the same phrase in another voice, while still fitting together contrapuntally.
(The term stretto means “tight” or “close” in Italian.)
For example, in the Fugue-Kriti, a stretto is used between the violin and veena in mm. 75–76 of the Charanam (Movement III; measure numbers appear at the top of the video.)

Example: Stretto

A short musical idea that recurs and is developed during the piece.

The note just a half-step below the tonic, producing a strong pull toward the tonic. It is a key component of the dominant (V) chord, which resolves to the tonic (I) chord. This V–I progression — from tension to resolution — lies at the heart of Western tonal harmony.

Within the tonal framework, the system where chords have specific roles or functions for harmonic direction and goals. Its foundation is the tension of the dominant (V) chord resolving to the stability of the tonic (I) chord — a progression that creates a strong sense of forward movement and resolution.

A term that can refer to a texture or compositional style, as well as to a form. As a texture or style, it is highly contrapuntal, featuring multiple independent voices that are closely interwoven. As a form — developed most fully in the Baroque era — its characteristic feature is the exposition, or opening section.
The exposition begins with a melodic subject, usually with an identifiable profile, and sometimes paired with a countersubject. This is followed by sequential entries of the subject at the tonic and dominant (the latter called the answer).
A layered structure is created by these staggered entries, each restating the theme at a different pitch while earlier voices continue with independent material.

Example: Fugue Subject (Violin)

Example: Countersubject (Violin) combined with Answer at the Dominant (Flute)

The fifth note of a scale. In Carnatic music, this corresponds to Pa.

The combination of multiple independent melodic lines to create an interwoven texture. This texture arises from the horizontal interplay of distinct melodies, as well as the vertical combination of notes to create harmonic progressions.